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CSC205::Lecture Note::Week 08
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Overview Assignment(s):  Code:  [exceptions] TestExceptions.java | Xception.java | BlastOff.java | AmusementRide.java
[interfaces] InterfaceExample.java | InterfaceEG.java | {I_ExitStatus.java | TestI_ExitStatus.java}
[more interfaces] TestSerializable.java | {TestClone.java | CloneableEG.java} CSC205_Containers
[multi-dimensional arrays] TwoDimensionalArrays.java | BYTES.java | ThreeDimensionalArray.java
[memory/heap/stack] Memory.java [static main() methods] Main.java
[list] #IntList.java | [stack] NumberSystemStack.java | Stack.java | ParenChecker.java | Stack2.java
[queue] Queue.java | FootNotes.java (footnotes.in.txt) | Q.java | TestQ.java | PriorityQueue.java | CircularArrayQ.java

Exceptions

Exceptions are "exceptional" conditions that can occur while a program is executing (i.e. running). Some exceptions are caused due to software defects (e.g. using a null object handle, or indexing beyond the bounds of an array). 

   String s = null;
   String s1 = "hello";
   ...
   if (s.equals(s1)) { ... }     //this will cause an exception
   ...
   int[] array = new int[10];
   ...
   array[array.length] = 200;    //this will cause an exception

Exceptions are also generated by errors that are beyond the control of the program (e.g. the program needs to access a file that doesn't exist, or the program needs to fetch a webpage given an invalid [mal-formed] URL).

Exceptions can be "caught" by programs, but if an exception does occur that isn't caught, then the program (assuming it is non-graphical) terminates. (A GUI program returns to the user interface).

Exceptions are objects that are created from the Exception and RuntimeException classes. 

          Throwable
             |
   Error               Exception
   .....               /  ...  \
                  IOException   RuntimeException 
                    (checked)     (unchecked)

There are two categories of exceptions: checked and unchecked. Checked exceptions must be caught (otherwise, your program will not compile). Unchecked exceptions typically are not caught (i.e. they cause your program to terminate when they occur).

A method can throw an exception when it encounters a situation it cannot handle. There are numerous methods that come with the JCL (java class library) that throw exceptions.

A method declaration must contain a list of the the checked exceptions it may throw. 

   public int someMethod() throws IOException, MalformedURLException

A method does not need to declare RuntimeException inherited exceptions that it may throw.

If a method overrides a method from a parent class, then the child method cannot throw more checked exceptions that the parent method does.

A method can say it throws exceptions that it really doesn't throw.

Catching an Exception

Whenever a method is called that throws a checked exception, then that method call must be called from within a try block and an exception handler (catch block) must be implemented. 

   try {
      ...
      someMethodThatThrowsIOException();
      ...
   } catch (IOException e) {
      ...
   }

If an exception occurs, then the flow control of the program jumps to a catch block. All remaining statements, if any, within the try block are skipped. If no exception is thrown, then the catch blocks are skipped.

A try block must be a compound statement. Ditto for the catchblocks.

The catch blocks are passed an argument: a reference to the exception (which may or may not be used).

Throwing an Exception

An exception is thrown as follows. 

   throw new EOFException();

         or

   throw new EOFException("file's empty");
      //supply additional information about the exception
      //this information can help the client "fix" the problem

A method that throws an exception does not return to the caller.

An exception can be re-thrown. You may want to do this in the event an exception occurs: you catch it locally to clean up any locally allocated objects and/or system resources, and then "pass" the exception on to those who know about handling it.

Exception A can be caught, and exception B can be thrown.

Creating an Exception Class

You can create your own exceptions by extending Exception or some child class of Exception. 

   class MyException extends Exception {
      public MyException() {}
      public MyException(String msg) { super(msg); }
   }
Terminology

The following exception terminology was obtained from Just Java by Peter van der Linden:

Note Java Other Languages
An error condition that happens at run time Exception Exception
Causing an exception to occur Throwing Raising
Capturing an exception that has just occurred, and executing statements to resolve it in some way Catching Handling
The block that does this Catch clause Handler
The sequence of call statements that brought control to the method where the exception happened Stack trace Call chain
Miscellaneous Comments

Detect errors at a low level, handle them at a high level.

Use exceptions only for exceptional situations.

YouTube.com::CS 61B Lecture 14: Exceptions

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Interfaces

From the The Java Programming Language by Arnold, Gosling, Holmes.

The fundamental unit of programming in Java is the class, but the fundamental unit of object-oriented design is the type. Interfaces define types in an abstract form as a collection of methods or other types that form the contract for that type.

An interface is defined using the keyword interface rather than class.

An interface contains no instance variables, nor does it contain any method implementations. You cannot create instances of an interface. 

   interface Foo { ... }

   //! Foo f = new Foo();   // not legal

An interface can declare three kinds of members:

All interface members are implicitly public.

A class guarantees to implement the methods of an interface by using the implements keyword when the class is defined. 

   class X implements Y

Any class that implements an interface must define (i.e. implement) the methods, if any, declared in the interface.

A class can implement more that one interface. In addition, a class can extend another class and still implement one or more interfaces. 

   class X implements Y, Z { ... }
   class X extends A implements Y, Z { ... }

To an extent, interfaces support the concept of multiple inheritance.

Common interfaces from the java.lang package:

An interface can be used to "tie" together classes that are in separate inheritance trees. 

                  Object
                    |
                Assignment               Interface:  Submitable
                    |
            Exam   Program   Homework
            ...    ...       ...



             Object
               |
              Game                       Interface:  Submitable
               |
  Guessing  Yahtzee   Blackjack
  ...       ...       ....

Another example...

An interface can be used to encapsulate a collected of related manifest constants (i.e. simulate an enum in C). 

   interface ExitStatus {
      int EXIT_SUCCESS = 0;
      int EXIT_FAILURE = 1;
   }

When an interface declares named constants, then they are implicitly defined to be public, static, and final. [blank finals are not allowed]

Methods declared in an interface are implicitly abstract.

An interface can extend (i.e. inherit) other interfaces. 

   interface Sortable { ... }
   interface Searchable { ... }
   interface Container extends Sortable, Searchable { ... }
Any class that implements interface Container must also implement the Sortable and Searchable interfaces.

Although you cannot instantiate an object using an interface, you can use an interface as the type for variable and assign to that variable any object whose class implements the interface. This allows for polymorphic run-time binding. 

   interface Container { ... }

   class List implements Container { ... }

   List list = new List();
   ...
   Container c = list;  // list is a container

From a naming convention perspective, many interfaces have a -able suffix applied to them.

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Object Serialization

Any object that implements the Serializable interface can be turned into a sequence of bytes that can be restored fully into the original object.

Benefits.

The Serializable interface is used as a flag -- it has no methods. Some objects may not want to be serialized.

To serialize an object you create some sort of OutputStream object and wrap it inside an ObjectOutputStream object. Then, the object can be serialized by calling writeObject(). Reversing the process is accomplished by creating an InputStream inside a ObjectInputStream and calling the readObject() method.

When an object is serialized, so are all the references it may contain to other objects. 

- Object Serialization (java1.1)
   * useful for saving the state of an application/applet
   * objects serialized/deserialized with  ObjectOutputStream  and
     ObjectInputStream, respectively, using the  writeObject()  and
     readObject()  methods
   * primitive types written to stream as if using DataOutputStream;
     otherwise,  writeObject() is called recursively to serialize
     other objects (arrays, strings, objects) -- infinite recursion
     is not a problem (so they say); can end up with an entire
     graph object serialized
   * not all objects can or should be serialized
   * a class is serialable iff it implements Serializable 
      (or Externalizable); no methods defined -- it is a
      marker interface
   * Component implements Serializable; thus, all AWT components
     can be serialized
   * transient  indicates that a field should not be serialized
   * custom serialization is accomplished by overriding  writeObject()
     and  readObject(), and by using  defaultWriteObject()  and
     defaultReadObject() -- note: they must be declared  private
   * classes are assigned a version # -- cannot deserialize a
     class that has a different version # than what was used when
     it was serialized;  'serialver'  program
        + static final long serialVersionUID = 19971209L;
   * serialized applets
      + <applet code=appletName.ser ...>
      + applets can be shipped in a pre-initialized state
   * Externalizable
      + ObjectOutputStream and ObjectInputStream use the
         writeExternal() and readInternal() methods instead
         of writeObject() and readObject(); allows the class
         to take complete control over writing/reading their state

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Object Cloning

Objects cannot be cloned unless they are created using a class that implements the Cloneable interface.

For a class to use the default implementation of Object.clone(), it must implement the Cloneable interface.

The Cloneable interface is an empty interface -- it is used as a tag only. In many cases, classes that can be cloned override Object.clone().

Object.clone() does a bit-wise copy, which works fine for primitive types, but not necessarily with references. Only individual classes know how to be cloned (if at all). By default, a shallow copy is done versus a deep copy.

If an attempt is made to clone an object that is not cloneable, then the CloneNotSupportedException exception is thrown. This is a checked exception; therefore, it must be caught.

It is common for cloneable classes to override clone() so as to make it public rather than protected. 

   The Population class extends class X (which is cloneable), and it
   contains numerous primitive types and a bunch of object references:

      try {
         Population p = (Population)super.clone();
         p.name = new String(getName());
         p.growthRate = (GrowthRate)growthRate.clone();
         p.density = (Density)density.clone();
         return p;
      } catch (CloneNotSupportedException e) { return null; }

From the CoreJava book.

Why clone? You never want to return a mutable object as the value of a method because this violates encapsulation. As a rule of thumb, always use clone whenever you need to return a copy of a mutable data field.

When you start dealing with objects instantiated from classes that you do not know well, then how they clone becomes an unknown.

Here is an example of a program that will result in the throwing of a CloneNotSupportedException. 

   class A {
      int a;
      public A (int i) { a = i; }
      public Object clone() throws CloneNotSupportedException {
         return super.clone();
      }
   }
   public class Main {
      public static void main(String[] arg) {
         A a1 = new A(260);
         try {
            A a2 = (A)(a1.clone());
         } catch (CloneNotSupportedException e) {}
      }
   }

      The execeptions occurs because class A calls Object.clone(),
      but it does not implement the  cloneable  interface.

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Lists

A  list  is a linear data structure whose components can only be accessed sequentially, one after another.

The first item is a list is called the  head  or  front  and the last item is called the  tail ,  back  or  end.

Lists have the following features:

List operations include:

GDT::Java::Code::GoofyIntList.java

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Sets

A set is a basic building block of mathematics and is a collection of objects (e.g. integers, real numbers, boolean values, geometric points, strings, records, etc.).

The objects of a set are called elements (or members).

A set the following properties:

Example of sets:

The following operations are performed on a set:

An array (i.e. vector) can be used to store a set.

A class that is used to represent a set could have the following instance methods: 

   Set();
   Set(int capacity);
   boolean isMember(Object element);
   boolean isEmpty();
   boolean isSubset(Set other);
   int size();
   Set union(Set other);
   Set intersection(Set other);
   Set difference(Set other);
   void add(Object element);
   void remove(Object element);
   void clear();

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Stacks

A  stack  is a data structure in which all access is restricted to the most-recently-inserted elements (LIFO: Last-In-First-Out).

My favorite real world example of a stack is a salad bar. Typically, at the start of the salad bar line is a stack of plates and normally you take the top-most plate (unless it is dirty or has some type of foreign looking object on it, in which case you dig down and take a plate from somewhere lower in the stack [atypical stack behavior]). In actualality, a stack is the wrong way to store plates at a salad bar because of the following scenario: The dishwasher cleans the dirty plates, brings them out front to the salad bar, and  pushes  them on top of the stack -- now John Q. Customer comes up and is stuck using a hot plate.

A stack has three natural operations: insert, delete, and find; but in stack terminology these operations are called  push ,  pop  and  top .

Elements are inserted onto a stack by using a push operation.

Elements are deleted from a stack by using a pop operation.

The most-recently inserted element can be examined by using a top operation.

Stacks are heavily used in system software (e.g. compilers). A stack can be used to check for unbalanced symbols (e.g. (), {}, []). Example algorithm:

  1. create an empty stack
  2. read symbols until EOF
    1. if the symbol is an opening symbol, push it onto the stack
    2. if the symbol is a closing symbol and the stack is empty, then report an error
    3. otherwise, pop the stack (if symbol popped is not the corresponding opening symbol, then report an error)
  3. at EOF, if stack is *not* empty, then report an error

A stack is used to implement function (method) calls in most languages. For example in C++, when a function is called, memory for parameters and locally defined variables is allocated from the stack. When the function returns, the memory for the parameters and local variables is de-allocated from the stack. In addition, "jump" information and return value data is stored on the stack.

Stacks are also used in the evaluation of expressions (e.g. operator precedence parsing).

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Queues

A  queue  is a data structure in which all access is restricted to the least-recently-inserted elements (FIFO: First-In-First-Out).

Operations are:

Examples of a queue: buffered input and a line printer spooler.

Another queue example: message queues.

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Priority Queues

A  priority queue  allows the highest priority element to be removed from a queue even though it may not be the "oldest."

Real world example of a priority queue: You go to a restaurant with a friend that has a wait. There are a number of queues: a queue for two person table, a queue for a four person table, and a queue for large party table. You are placed on the queue for a two person table. There are three "elements" ahead of you. In comes a VIP with a friend. The next two person table that opens up is given to the VIP.

An operating system may use a priority queue when scheduling jobs. By default, each job is given the same priority. CPU access is granted using a queue (first come, first served). In certain cases, however, you may have a job that needs to get more CPU usage. In those cases, it will be given a priority higher than the default. The OS will use a scheduling algorithm to ensure the higher priority job gets the CPU with more frequency.

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Linked Lists

A linked list is a low-level structure upon which high-level data structures can be built (e.g. stacks and queues can be implemented using a linked-list).

To date, we have grouped program data using the following ADTs (Abstract Data Types, or User Defined Types): array, class), Vector, set, list, stack, and queue (and priority queue).

Sometimes the only ADT available for organizing data is the built-in array; however, this can be problem if the the elements of the array need to be stored in some sort of order and elements are going to be inserted and deleted from the array. In these cases a linked-list may be the solution.

A linked-list is a collection of records, called nodes, each containing at least one field (member) that gives the location of the next node in the list. In the simplest case, each node contains two members: a data member (the data value of the list item) and a link member (a value locating the next node).

If each node contains only one link member, then we have a singly linked list.

Unlike an array, the nodes of a linked-list do not necessarily occupy consecutive memory locations. [C/C++ comment]

The implementation of a linked-list relies heavily on dynamic memory allocation. [Every node is dynamically allocated. When a linked-list is created, its length (i.e. # of nodes) is unknown.] [C/C++ comment]

Although arrays support "simple" list storage applications, they cannot efficiently handle dynamic changes such as inserting and deleting from the middle of a list. As we have seen, these operations require shifting elements either to the right or the left. With large volumes of data, these copy operations can be expensive.

Terminology

A linked list consists of a set of nodes. Each node contains data and link members. The first element is called the front and is pointed to by head. The end-of-list (EOL) is called the rear its link data member has the value NULL (i.e. 0). In some implementations the rear is pointed to by tail. List applications traverse the linked list using a cursor as a reference (or pointer) to the current element.

Description of a Node

A node can be described as follows:

Data
Operations
Bjarne Stroustrup: Why you should avoid Linked Lists

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Sets

A set is a basic building block of mathematics and is a collection of objects (e.g. integers, real numbers, boolean values, geometric points, strings, records, etc.).

The objects of a set are called elements (or members).

A set the following properties:

Example of sets:

The following operations are performed on a set:

An array (i.e. vector) can be used to store a set.

A class that is used to represent a set could have the following instance methods: 

   Set();
   Set(int capacity);
   boolean isMember(Object element);
   boolean isEmpty();
   boolean isSubset(Set other);
   int size();
   Set union(Set other);
   Set intersection(Set other);
   Set difference(Set other);
   void add(Object element);
   void remove(Object element);
   void clear();

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Stacks

A  stack  is a data structure in which all access is restricted to the most-recently-inserted elements (LIFO: Last-In-First-Out).

My favorite real world example of a stack is a salad bar. Typically, at the start of the salad bar line is a stack of plates and normally you take the top-most plate (unless it is dirty or has some type of foreign looking object on it, in which case you dig down and take a plate from somewhere lower in the stack [atypical stack behavior]). In actualality, a stack is the wrong way to store plates at a salad bar because of the following scenario: The dishwasher cleans the dirty plates, brings them out front to the salad bar, and  pushes  them on top of the stack -- now John Q. Customer comes up and is stuck using a hot plate.

A stack has three natural operations: insert, delete, and find; but in stack terminology these operations are called  push ,  pop  and  top .

Elements are inserted onto a stack by using a push operation.

Elements are deleted from a stack by using a pop operation.

The most-recently inserted element can be examined by using a top operation.

Stacks are heavily used in system software (e.g. compilers). A stack can be used to check for unbalanced symbols (e.g. (), {}, []). Example algorithm:

  1. create an empty stack
  2. read symbols until EOF
    1. if the symbol is an opening symbol, push it onto the stack
    2. if the symbol is a closing symbol and the stack is empty, then report an error
    3. otherwise, pop the stack (if symbol popped is not the corresponding opening symbol, then report an error)
  3. at EOF, if stack is *not* empty, then report an error

A stack is used to implement function (method) calls in most languages. For example in C++, when a function is called, memory for parameters and locally defined variables is allocated from the stack. When the function returns, the memory for the parameters and local variables is de-allocated from the stack. In addition, "jump" information and return value data is stored on the stack.

Stacks are also used in the evaluation of expressions (e.g. operator precedence parsing).

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Queues

A  queue  is a data structure in which all access is restricted to the least-recently-inserted elements (FIFO: First-In-First-Out).

Operations are:

Examples of a queue: buffered input and a line printer spooler.

Another queue example: message queues.

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

Priority Queues

A  priority queue  allows the highest priority element to be removed from a queue even though it may not be the "oldest."

Real world example of a priority queue: You go to a restaurant with a friend that has a wait. There are a number of queues: a queue for two person table, a queue for a four person table, and a queue for large party table. You are placed on the queue for a two person table. There are three "elements" ahead of you. In comes a VIP with a friend. The next two person table that opens up is given to the VIP.

An operating system may use a priority queue when scheduling jobs. By default, each job is given the same priority. CPU access is granted using a queue (first come, first served). In certain cases, however, you may have a job that needs to get more CPU usage. In those cases, it will be given a priority higher than the default. The OS will use a scheduling algorithm to ensure the higher priority job gets the CPU with more frequency.

{TopOfPage} {Oracle.com::API Specification | Tutorial} {Derek Banas Videos} {Data Structure Visualizations}

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